Loading [a11y]/accessibility-menu.js
Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

Year 2023, , 184 - 192, 05.07.2023

Bircan Dinç , Recep Üstünsoy , Tahsin Ertaş , Emine Şen

https://doi.org/10.3153/FH23017

Abstract

Keywords

Differential Scanning Calorimetry FTIR Milk quality Storage effect Freeze-Drying

References

  • Ali, A. H., Wei, W., Wang, X. (2020). Characterization of bovine and buffalo anhydrous milk fat fractions and infant formula fat: Application of differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and colour attributes. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 129, 109542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109542 Anema, S., Pinder, D., Hunter, R., Hemar, Y. (2006). Effects of storage temperature on the solubility of milk protein concentrate (MPC85). Food Hydrocolloids, 20(2-3), 386-393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2005.03.015 Antony, B., Sharma, S., Mehta, B. M., Ratnam, K., Aparnathi, K. D. (2018). Study of Fourier transforms near-infrared (FT‐NIR) spectra of ghee (anhydrous milk fat). International Journal of Dairy Technology, 71(2), 484-490. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12450
  • Araki, K., Yagi, N., Ikemoto, Y., Yagi, H., Choong, C.-J., Hayakawa, H., Beck, G., Sumi, H., Fujimura, H., Moriwaki, T. (2015). Synchrotron FTIR micro-spectroscopy for structural analysis of Lewy bodies in the brain of Parkinson’s disease patients. Scientific Reports, 5(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep17625
  • Balabin, R.M., Smirnov, S.V. (2011). Melamine detection by mid- and near-infrared (MIR/NIR) spectroscopy: A quick and sensitive method for dairy products analysis including liquid milk, infant formula, and milk powder. Talanta, 85(1), 562-568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2011.04.026
  • Buckton, G., Yonemochi, E., Hammond, J., Moffat, A. (1998). The use of near infra-red spectroscopy to detect changes in the form of amorphous and crystalline lactose. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 168(2), 231-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5173(98)00095-7 Buera, P., Schebor, C., Elizalde, B. (2005). Effects of carbohydrate crystallization on stability of dehydrated foods and ingredient formulations. Journal of Food Engineering, 67(1-2), 157-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.05.052
  • Chiu, M.H., Prenner, E.J. (2011). Differential scanning calorimetry: An invaluable tool for a detailed thermodynamic characterization of macromolecules and their interactions. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 3(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-7406.76463 Cordella, C., Antinelli, J.-F., Aurieres, C., Faucon, J.-P., Cabrol-Bass, D., Sbirrazzuoli, N. (2002). Use of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) as a new technique for detection of adulteration in honeys. 1. Study of adulteration effect on honey thermal behavior. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(1), 203-208. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf010752s
  • Dutta, S., Hartkopf-Fröder, C., Witte, K., Brocke, R., Mann, U. (2013). Molecular characterization of fossil palynomorphs by transmission micro-FTIR spectroscopy: Implications for hydrocarbon source evaluation. International Journal of Coal Geology, 115, 13-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.04.003
  • Güven, M. (1998). Antimikrobiyal maddeler ve süt teknolojisinde kullanım olanakları. Gıda, 23(5), 365-369.
  • Haque, E., Bhandari, B.R., Gidley, M.J., Deeth, H.C., Møller, S.M., Whittaker, A.K. (2010). Protein conformational modifications and kinetics of water− protein interactions in milk protein concentrate powder upon aging: effect on solubility. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(13), 7748-7755. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf1007055
  • Herrington, B. (1934). Some physico-chemical properties of lactose: I. The spontaneous crystallization of supersaturated solutions of lactose. Journal of Dairy Science, 17(7), 501-518. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(34)93265-3 Howard, K.M., Jati Kusuma, R., Baier, S.R., Friemel, T., Markham, L., Vanamala, J., Zempleni, J. (2015). Loss of miRNAs during processing and storage of cow’s (Bos taurus) milk. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63(2), 588-592. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf505526w
  • Jawaid, S., Talpur, F.N., Sherazi, S., Nizamani, S.M. Khaskheli, A.A. (2013). Rapid detection of melamine adulteration in dairy milk by SB-ATR–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Food Chemistry, 141(3), 3066-3071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.106 Jouppila, K., Roos, Y. (1994). Glass transitions and crystallization in milk powders. Journal of Dairy Science, 77(10), 2907-2915. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(94)77231-3
  • Kaur, P., Singh, M., Birwal, P. (2021). Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) for the Measurement of Food Thermal Characteristics and Its Relation to Composition and Structure. Techniques to Measure Food Safety and Quality, 283-328. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68636-9_18 Kim, E.H.-J., Chen, X.D., Pearce, D. (2005). Melting characteristics of fat present on the surface of industrial spray-dried dairy powders. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 42(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2005.01.004
  • Koca, N., Kocaoglu-Vurma, N., Harper, W., Rodriguez-Saona, L. (2010). Application of temperature-controlled attenuated total reflectance-mid-infrared (ATR-MIR) spectroscopy for rapid estimation of butter adulteration. Food Chemistry, 121(3), 778-782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.083
  • Liu, H., Chaudhary, D. (2011). The moisture migration behavior of plasticized starch biopolymer. Drying Technology, 29(3), 278-285. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2010.489208
  • Morgan, F., Nouzille, C.A., Baechler, R., Vuataz, G., Raemy, A. (2005). Lactose crystallisation and early Maillard reaction in skim milk powder and whey protein concentrates. Le Lait, 85(4-5), 315-323. https://doi.org/10.1051/lait:2005017 Pellegrino, L. (1994). Influence of fat content on some heat-induced changes in milk and cream. Netherlands Milk and Dairy Journal, 48, 71-80.
  • Phosanam, A., Chandrapala, J., Huppertz, T., Adhikari, B., Zisu, B. (2020). Changes in physicochemical and surface characteristics in milk protein powders during storage. Drying Technology, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2020.1755978
  • Poonia, A., Jha, A., Sharma, R., Singh, H.B., Rai, A.K., Sharma, N. (2017). Detection of adulteration in milk: A review. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 70(1), 23-42. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12274
  • Pugliese, A., Paciulli, M., Chiavaro, E., Mucchetti, G. (2019). Application of differential scanning calorimetry to freeze-dried milk and milk fractions. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 137(2), 703-709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7971-7 Shrestha, A.K., Howes, T., Adhikari, B.P., Bhandari, B.R. (2007). Water sorption and glass transition properties of spray dried lactose hydrolysed skim milk powder. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 40(9), 1593-1600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2006.11.003 Slade, L., Levine, H., Reid, D.S. (1991). Beyond water activity: recent advances based on an alternative approach to the assessment of food quality and safety. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition, 30(2-3), 115-360. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408399109527543 Smid, E.J., Gorris, L.G. (2020). Natural antimicrobials for food preservation. In Handbook of food preservation (pp. 283-298). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429091483-21
  • Rachah, A., Reksen, O., Tafintseva, V., Stehr, F.J.M., Rukke, E.-O., Prestløkken, E., Martin, A., Kohler, A., Afseth, N.K. (2021). Exploring dry-film ftir spectroscopy to characterize milk composition and subclinical ketosis throughout a cow’s lactation. Foods, 10(9), 2033. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10092033
  • Raemy, A. (2003). Behavior of foods studied by thermal analysis: Introduction. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 71(1), 273-278. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022299124618
  • Rahman, M.S., Al-Hakmani, H., Al-Alawi, A., Al-Marhubi, I. (2012). Thermal characteristics of freeze-dried camel milk and its major components. Thermochimica Acta, 549, 116-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2012.09.005
  • Roos, Y., Karel, M. (1990). Differential scanning calorimetry study of phase transitions affecting the quality of dehydrated materials. Biotechnology Progress, 6(2), 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1021/bp00002a011
  • Ten Grotenhuis, E., Van Aken, G., Van Malssen, K., Schenk, H. (1999). Polymorphism of milk fat studied by differential scanning calorimetry and real‐time X‐ray powder diffraction. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 76(9), 1031-1039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-999-0201-5
  • Thomas, M., Scher, J., Desobry, S. (2004). Lactose/β-lactoglobulin interaction during storage of model whey powders. Journal of Dairy Science, 87(5), 1158-1166. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73264-6
  • Trachenko, K., Brazhkin, V. (2011). Heat capacity at the glass transition. Physical Review B, 83(1), 014201. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.83.014201
  • Tsourouflis, S., Flink, J.M., Karel, M. (1976). Loss of structure in freeze‐dried carbohydrates solutions: effect of temperature, moisture content and composition. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 27(6), 509-519. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740270604
  • Tunick, M.H., Thomas-Gahring, A., Van Hekken, D.L., Iandola, S.K., Singh, M., Qi, P.X., Ukuku, D.O., Mukhopadhyay, S., Onwulata, C.I., & Tomasula, P.M. (2016). Physical and chemical changes in whey protein concentrate stored at elevated temperature and humidity. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(3), 2372-2383. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10256
  • Vuataz, G. (2002). The phase diagram of milk: a new tool for optimising the drying process. Le Lait, 82(4), 485-500. https://doi.org/10.1051/lait:2002026
  • Zouari, A., Lajnaf, R., Lopez, C., Schuck, P., Attia, H., Ayadi, M.A. (2021). Physicochemical, techno‐functional, and fat melting properties of spray‐dried camel and bovine milk powders. Journal of Food Science, 86(1), 103-111. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15550

A comparative analysis of ten milk samples with differential scanning calorimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Year 2023, , 184 - 192, 05.07.2023

Bircan Dinç , Recep Üstünsoy , Tahsin Ertaş , Emine Şen

https://doi.org/10.3153/FH23017

Abstract

Milk proteins occupy a prominent place in the nutrition of adults and children. Generally, some commercial dairy contains proteins, lactose, other sugar derivatives, and additives. The proportions of the components that make up the milk are different in commercial milk. For this reason, analyzing milk correctly is essential for determining these contents. In this research, analyses of the milk were made by taking differential scanning calorimetry measurements (DSC), and Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR) measurements. Specific heat values and specific values of temperature peaks were examined for ten kinds of milk. DSC curves revealed triacylglycerol dissolution, lactose crystallization, and protein denaturation peaks. Wide variations were observed with the same fat content from 10 milk powders. Most characteristic peaks were not observed when the samples were re-measured after a year at -20°C. The powder samples were compared in terms of protein, fat, lactose content, whey protein casein, and caseinate contents according to differences in FTIR spectra. The FTIR results confirm the DSC curves for most of the analyzed milk types.

Keywords

Differential Scanning Calorimetry FTIR Milk quality Storage effect Freeze-Drying

References

  • Ali, A. H., Wei, W., Wang, X. (2020). Characterization of bovine and buffalo anhydrous milk fat fractions and infant formula fat: Application of differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and colour attributes. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 129, 109542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109542 Anema, S., Pinder, D., Hunter, R., Hemar, Y. (2006). Effects of storage temperature on the solubility of milk protein concentrate (MPC85). Food Hydrocolloids, 20(2-3), 386-393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2005.03.015 Antony, B., Sharma, S., Mehta, B. M., Ratnam, K., Aparnathi, K. D. (2018). Study of Fourier transforms near-infrared (FT‐NIR) spectra of ghee (anhydrous milk fat). International Journal of Dairy Technology, 71(2), 484-490. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12450
  • Araki, K., Yagi, N., Ikemoto, Y., Yagi, H., Choong, C.-J., Hayakawa, H., Beck, G., Sumi, H., Fujimura, H., Moriwaki, T. (2015). Synchrotron FTIR micro-spectroscopy for structural analysis of Lewy bodies in the brain of Parkinson’s disease patients. Scientific Reports, 5(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep17625
  • Balabin, R.M., Smirnov, S.V. (2011). Melamine detection by mid- and near-infrared (MIR/NIR) spectroscopy: A quick and sensitive method for dairy products analysis including liquid milk, infant formula, and milk powder. Talanta, 85(1), 562-568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2011.04.026
  • Buckton, G., Yonemochi, E., Hammond, J., Moffat, A. (1998). The use of near infra-red spectroscopy to detect changes in the form of amorphous and crystalline lactose. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 168(2), 231-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5173(98)00095-7 Buera, P., Schebor, C., Elizalde, B. (2005). Effects of carbohydrate crystallization on stability of dehydrated foods and ingredient formulations. Journal of Food Engineering, 67(1-2), 157-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.05.052
  • Chiu, M.H., Prenner, E.J. (2011). Differential scanning calorimetry: An invaluable tool for a detailed thermodynamic characterization of macromolecules and their interactions. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 3(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-7406.76463 Cordella, C., Antinelli, J.-F., Aurieres, C., Faucon, J.-P., Cabrol-Bass, D., Sbirrazzuoli, N. (2002). Use of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) as a new technique for detection of adulteration in honeys. 1. Study of adulteration effect on honey thermal behavior. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(1), 203-208. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf010752s
  • Dutta, S., Hartkopf-Fröder, C., Witte, K., Brocke, R., Mann, U. (2013). Molecular characterization of fossil palynomorphs by transmission micro-FTIR spectroscopy: Implications for hydrocarbon source evaluation. International Journal of Coal Geology, 115, 13-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.04.003
  • Güven, M. (1998). Antimikrobiyal maddeler ve süt teknolojisinde kullanım olanakları. Gıda, 23(5), 365-369.
  • Haque, E., Bhandari, B.R., Gidley, M.J., Deeth, H.C., Møller, S.M., Whittaker, A.K. (2010). Protein conformational modifications and kinetics of water− protein interactions in milk protein concentrate powder upon aging: effect on solubility. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(13), 7748-7755. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf1007055
  • Herrington, B. (1934). Some physico-chemical properties of lactose: I. The spontaneous crystallization of supersaturated solutions of lactose. Journal of Dairy Science, 17(7), 501-518. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(34)93265-3 Howard, K.M., Jati Kusuma, R., Baier, S.R., Friemel, T., Markham, L., Vanamala, J., Zempleni, J. (2015). Loss of miRNAs during processing and storage of cow’s (Bos taurus) milk. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63(2), 588-592. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf505526w
  • Jawaid, S., Talpur, F.N., Sherazi, S., Nizamani, S.M. Khaskheli, A.A. (2013). Rapid detection of melamine adulteration in dairy milk by SB-ATR–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Food Chemistry, 141(3), 3066-3071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.106 Jouppila, K., Roos, Y. (1994). Glass transitions and crystallization in milk powders. Journal of Dairy Science, 77(10), 2907-2915. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(94)77231-3
  • Kaur, P., Singh, M., Birwal, P. (2021). Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) for the Measurement of Food Thermal Characteristics and Its Relation to Composition and Structure. Techniques to Measure Food Safety and Quality, 283-328. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68636-9_18 Kim, E.H.-J., Chen, X.D., Pearce, D. (2005). Melting characteristics of fat present on the surface of industrial spray-dried dairy powders. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 42(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2005.01.004
  • Koca, N., Kocaoglu-Vurma, N., Harper, W., Rodriguez-Saona, L. (2010). Application of temperature-controlled attenuated total reflectance-mid-infrared (ATR-MIR) spectroscopy for rapid estimation of butter adulteration. Food Chemistry, 121(3), 778-782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.083
  • Liu, H., Chaudhary, D. (2011). The moisture migration behavior of plasticized starch biopolymer. Drying Technology, 29(3), 278-285. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2010.489208
  • Morgan, F., Nouzille, C.A., Baechler, R., Vuataz, G., Raemy, A. (2005). Lactose crystallisation and early Maillard reaction in skim milk powder and whey protein concentrates. Le Lait, 85(4-5), 315-323. https://doi.org/10.1051/lait:2005017 Pellegrino, L. (1994). Influence of fat content on some heat-induced changes in milk and cream. Netherlands Milk and Dairy Journal, 48, 71-80.
  • Phosanam, A., Chandrapala, J., Huppertz, T., Adhikari, B., Zisu, B. (2020). Changes in physicochemical and surface characteristics in milk protein powders during storage. Drying Technology, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2020.1755978
  • Poonia, A., Jha, A., Sharma, R., Singh, H.B., Rai, A.K., Sharma, N. (2017). Detection of adulteration in milk: A review. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 70(1), 23-42. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0307.12274
  • Pugliese, A., Paciulli, M., Chiavaro, E., Mucchetti, G. (2019). Application of differential scanning calorimetry to freeze-dried milk and milk fractions. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 137(2), 703-709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7971-7 Shrestha, A.K., Howes, T., Adhikari, B.P., Bhandari, B.R. (2007). Water sorption and glass transition properties of spray dried lactose hydrolysed skim milk powder. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 40(9), 1593-1600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2006.11.003 Slade, L., Levine, H., Reid, D.S. (1991). Beyond water activity: recent advances based on an alternative approach to the assessment of food quality and safety. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition, 30(2-3), 115-360. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408399109527543 Smid, E.J., Gorris, L.G. (2020). Natural antimicrobials for food preservation. In Handbook of food preservation (pp. 283-298). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429091483-21
  • Rachah, A., Reksen, O., Tafintseva, V., Stehr, F.J.M., Rukke, E.-O., Prestløkken, E., Martin, A., Kohler, A., Afseth, N.K. (2021). Exploring dry-film ftir spectroscopy to characterize milk composition and subclinical ketosis throughout a cow’s lactation. Foods, 10(9), 2033. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10092033
  • Raemy, A. (2003). Behavior of foods studied by thermal analysis: Introduction. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 71(1), 273-278. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022299124618
  • Rahman, M.S., Al-Hakmani, H., Al-Alawi, A., Al-Marhubi, I. (2012). Thermal characteristics of freeze-dried camel milk and its major components. Thermochimica Acta, 549, 116-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2012.09.005
  • Roos, Y., Karel, M. (1990). Differential scanning calorimetry study of phase transitions affecting the quality of dehydrated materials. Biotechnology Progress, 6(2), 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1021/bp00002a011
  • Ten Grotenhuis, E., Van Aken, G., Van Malssen, K., Schenk, H. (1999). Polymorphism of milk fat studied by differential scanning calorimetry and real‐time X‐ray powder diffraction. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 76(9), 1031-1039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-999-0201-5
  • Thomas, M., Scher, J., Desobry, S. (2004). Lactose/β-lactoglobulin interaction during storage of model whey powders. Journal of Dairy Science, 87(5), 1158-1166. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73264-6
  • Trachenko, K., Brazhkin, V. (2011). Heat capacity at the glass transition. Physical Review B, 83(1), 014201. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.83.014201
  • Tsourouflis, S., Flink, J.M., Karel, M. (1976). Loss of structure in freeze‐dried carbohydrates solutions: effect of temperature, moisture content and composition. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 27(6), 509-519. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740270604
  • Tunick, M.H., Thomas-Gahring, A., Van Hekken, D.L., Iandola, S.K., Singh, M., Qi, P.X., Ukuku, D.O., Mukhopadhyay, S., Onwulata, C.I., & Tomasula, P.M. (2016). Physical and chemical changes in whey protein concentrate stored at elevated temperature and humidity. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(3), 2372-2383. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-10256
  • Vuataz, G. (2002). The phase diagram of milk: a new tool for optimising the drying process. Le Lait, 82(4), 485-500. https://doi.org/10.1051/lait:2002026
  • Zouari, A., Lajnaf, R., Lopez, C., Schuck, P., Attia, H., Ayadi, M.A. (2021). Physicochemical, techno‐functional, and fat melting properties of spray‐dried camel and bovine milk powders. Journal of Food Science, 86(1), 103-111. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15550
There are 28 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Food Engineering
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Bircan Dinç 0000-0002-9717-6410

Recep Üstünsoy 0000-0002-0448-9531

Tahsin Ertaş 0000-0002-1572-1383

Emine Şen 0000-0001-7726-7334

Early Pub Date May 14, 2023
Publication Date July 5, 2023
Submission Date January 14, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023

Cite

APA Dinç, B., Üstünsoy, R., Ertaş, T., Şen, E. (2023). A comparative analysis of ten milk samples with differential scanning calorimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Food and Health, 9(3), 184-192. https://doi.org/10.3153/FH23017

16339

Journal is licensed under a

CreativeCommons Attribtion-ShareAlike 4.0 International Licence  14627 1331027042
Diamond Open Access refers to a scholarly publication model in which journals and platforms do not charge fees to either authors or readers.

Open Access Statement:

This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the BOAI definition of open access.

Archiving Policy:

27222

Archiving is done according to ULAKBİM "DergiPark" publication policy (LOCKSS).